Sure, here are examples of fungi that reproduce by budding and by conidia:

(i) Budding: Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker's yeast or brewer's yeast, reproduces predominantly by budding. This fungus is widely used in baking and brewing industries.

(ii) Conidia: Example: Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus is a common mold species that reproduces asexually by producing conidia. These conidia are airborne and can cause respiratory infections in humans, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems.

A characteristic feature of zoospores in some algae is their flagella, which are whip-like appendages used for locomotion. These flagella enable zoospores to move through water efficiently.

The function of zoospores in algae is reproduction. Zoospores are reproductive cells that are typically motile and released from specialized structures called sporangia or zoosporangia. They allow algae to disperse and colonize new habitats, contributing to the reproductive success and survival of the organism.

To determine the number of male gametophytes produced by the Abilobed, dithecous anther with 100 microspore mother cells per microsporangium, we need to understand the process of microsporogenesis.

Microsporogenesis involves the formation of microspores from microspore mother cells (also known as pollen mother cells) within the microsporangium. Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid microspores. Therefore, if there are 100 microspore mother cells per microsporangium, each microsporangium will produce 4 * 100 = 400 microspores.

Each microspore has the potential to develop into a male gametophyte (pollen grain). Hence, the number of male gametophytes produced by the anther would be the same as the number of microspores produced, which is 400.

Therefore, the Abilobed, dithecous anther can produce 400 male gametophytes.

The tapetum is a layer of cells found within the anther of a flowering plant. Its primary function is to nourish and support the development of pollen grains, which are the male gametophytes. If the tapetum malfunctions, it can result in the failure to produce viable male gametophytes for several reasons, but one significant reason is the lack of proper nutrition and support provided to the developing pollen grains.

The tapetum provides essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, to the developing pollen grains. It also helps in the removal of waste materials and facilitates the transfer of nutrients to the developing microspores. If the tapetum malfunctions, it may fail to provide these necessary nutrients and support, leading to impaired pollen development.

Without adequate nourishment and support from the tapetum, the male gametophytes may not undergo proper development, resulting in non-viable pollen grains. This can ultimately lead to the failure of successful pollination and fertilization in the plant, affecting its reproductive success.

The exine and intine of angiosperm pollen grains are primarily composed of organic materials.

1. Exine: The exine is the outer layer of the pollen grain wall and is primarily composed of sporopollenin, a highly resistant biopolymer. Sporopollenin is one of the most durable organic compounds known and is resistant to chemical and biological degradation. It is primarily made up of long-chain fatty acids and phenolic compounds. The exine layer provides protection to the pollen grain from various environmental stresses such as desiccation, UV radiation, and microbial attack. Additionally, the exine may also have elaborate sculpturing or ornamentation, which aids in pollen dispersal and recognition by pollinators.

2. Intine: The intine is the inner layer of the pollen grain wall and is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and proteins. Unlike the exine, the intine is relatively softer and less resistant to degradation. It plays a crucial role in pollen germination and pollen tube growth after pollination. The intine provides the necessary structural support and nutrients for the growing pollen tube to penetrate the stigma and reach the ovule for fertilization.

The exine and intine together provide structural integrity to the pollen grain and ensure successful pollen dispersal, pollination, and fertilization in angiosperms.