Write short notes on the functions of the following hormones:(d) Androgens (e) Estrogens (f) Insulin and Glucagon."

(d) Androgens:

• Androgens are a group of hormones primarily associated with male reproductive function, although they are also present in females in smaller amounts.
• Functions:
  1. Development of Male Reproductive Organs: Androgens, particularly testosterone, play a crucial role in the development and maturation of male reproductive organs, including the testes, corpus spongiosum , and accessory glands.
  2. Spermatogenesis: Androgens stimulate the production of sperm cells (spermatogenesis) in the testes, promoting fertility and reproductive function in males.
  3. Secondary sexology Characteristics: Androgens are responsible for the development of secondary sexology characteristics in males, such as facial and body hair growth, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass and bone density.
  4. Libido: Androgens play a role in the regulation of sexology desire (libido) and sexology behavior in both males and females.
  5. Metabolic Effects: Androgens have metabolic effects, including promoting protein synthesis, increasing muscle mass, and regulating fat distribution.

(e) Estrogens:

• Estrogens are a group of hormones primarily associated with female reproductive function, although they are also present in males in smaller amounts.
• Functions:
  1. Development of Female Reproductive Organs: Estrogens, particularly estradiol, play a crucial role in the development and maturation of female reproductive organs, including the ovaries, uterus, and fallopian tubes.
  2. Menstrual Cycle Regulation: Estrogens regulate the menstrual cycle by promoting the growth and development of the uterine lining (endometrium) during the follicular phase.
  3. Secondary sexology Characteristics: Estrogens are responsible for the development of secondary sexology characteristics in females, such as mammary gland. development, widening of the hips, and distribution of body fat.
  4. Bone Health: Estrogens help maintain bone density and strength by promoting calcium absorption and inhibiting bone resorption, reducing the risk of osteoporosis.
  5. Cardiovascular Health: Estrogens have cardiovascular effects, including promoting vasodilation and improving lipid metabolism, which may contribute to cardiovascular health in premenopausal women.

(f) Insulin and Glucagon:

• Insulin and glucagon are hormones produced by the pancreas that play essential roles in regulating blood glucose levels and energy metabolism.
• Functions:
  1. Insulin:
     • Insulin is produced by beta cells of the pancreas and is released in response to elevated blood glucose levels, such as after a meal.
     • Functions of insulin include:
       • Glucose Uptake: Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into cells, where it can be used for energy production or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
       • Glycogen Synthesis: Insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscles, helping to store excess glucose for future use.
       • Protein and Fat Synthesis: Insulin promotes protein synthesis and inhibits protein breakdown, as well as stimulates lipid synthesis and inhibits lipolysis.
       • Inhibition of Glucose Production: Insulin suppresses glucose production (gluconeogenesis) in the liver, helping to maintain blood glucose levels within a narrow range.
  2. Glucagon:
     • Glucagon is produced by alpha cells of the pancreas and is released in response to low blood glucose levels, such as during fasting or between meals.
     • Functions of glucagon include:
       • Glycogen Breakdown: Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) in the liver, releasing glucose into the bloodstream to raise blood glucose levels.
       • Glucose Production: Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, glycerol), in the liver.
       • Ketogenesis: Glucagon stimulates ketogenesis, the production of ketone bodies from fatty acids in the liver, as an alternative fuel source during prolonged fasting or starvation.
       • Inhibition of Glycogen Synthesis: Glucagon inhibits glycogen synthesis in the liver, preventing the storage of excess glucose when blood glucose levels are low.